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1 Introduction: Some Basic Concepts1

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO MATTER2

Substances5

Physical and Chemical Properties5

Physical and Chemical Changes5

Mixtures6

1.2 ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS9

Elements10

Compounds10

1.3 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT11

Length and Mass13

Temperature13

Derived SI Units15

Volume15

Density16

Intensive and ExtensiveProperties19

1.4 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT19

Precision and Accuracy19

Significant Figures20

Significant Figures in Calculations21

1.5 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS23

Summary of Dimensional Analysis25

Summary27

Key Terms28

Exercises28

2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions32

2.1 THE ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER33

2.2 THE DISCOVERY OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE35

Cathode Rays and Electrons35

Radioactivity38

The Nuclear Atom39

2.3 THE MODERN VIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE41

Isotopes, Atomic Numbers, and Mass Numbers43

2.4 THE PERIODIC TABLE44

2.5 MOLECULES AND IONS48

Molecules and Chemical Formulas48

Molecular, Empirical, and Structural Formulas49

Ions50

Predicting Ionic Charges52

Ionic Compounds53

2.6 NAMING INORGANIC COMPOUNDS55

Ionic Compounds: Cations55

Ionic Compounds: Anions56

Acids59

Molecular Compounds61

Summary61

Key Terms62

Exercises62

3 Stoichiometry: Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations67

3.1 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS68

3.2 PATTERNS OF CHEMICAL REACTIVITY71

Using the Periodic Table72

Combustion in Air72

Combination and Decomposition Reactions73

3.3 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR WEIGHTS75

The Atomic Mass Scale75

Average Atomic Masses76

Formula and Molecular Weights77

Percentage Composition from Formulas79

3.4 THE MOLE79

Molar Mass80

Interconverting Masses, Moles, and Numbers of Particles82

3.5 EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FROM ANALYSES84

Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula85

Combustion Analysis86

3.6 QUANTITATIVE INFORMATION FROM BALANCED EQUATIONS88

3.7 LIMITING REACTANTS92

Theoretical Yields95

Summary96

Key Terms97

Exercises97

4 Aqueous Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry104

4.1 SOLUTION COMPOSITION106

Molarity106

Dilution108

4.2 ELECTROLYTES109

Strong and Weak Electrolytes110

4.3 ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS112

Bases112

Salts113

Identifying Strong and Weak Electrolytes114

Neutralization Reactions115

4.4 IONIC EQUATIONS115

4.5 METATHESIS REACTIONS117

Precipitation Reactions118

Solubility Rules118

Reactions in Which a Weak Electrolyte or Nonelectrolyte Forms120

Reactions in Which a Gas Forms121

4.6 REACTIONS OF METALS124

Oxidation and Reduction124

Oxidation of Metals by Acids and Salts125

The Activity Series126

4.7 SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY128

Titrations131

Summary134

Key Terms134

Exercises135

5 Energy Relationships in Chemistry:Thermochemistry139

5.1 THE NATURE OF ENERGY140

Kinetic and Potential Energy141

Energy Units141

Systems and Surroundings142

Lowering the Energy of the System142

5.2 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS143

Internal Energy143

Relating △E to Heat and Work144

State Functions144

5.3 HEAT AND ENTHALPY CHANGES146

Enthalpy147

5.4 ENTHALPIES OF REACTION147

5.5 CALORIMETRY152

Heat Capacity and Specific Heat152

Constant-PressureCalorimetry153

Bomb Calorimetry （Constant-Volume Calorimetry）154

5.6 HESS’S LAW156

5.7 ENTHALPIES OF FORMATION159

Using Enthalpies of Formation to Calculate Enthalpies of Reaction160

5.8 FOODS AND FUELS162

Foods162

Fuels164

Other Energy Sources167

Summary167

Key Terms168

Exercises169

6 Electronic Structure of Atoms174

6.1 THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT175

6.2 QUANTUM EFFECTS AND PHOTONS178

The Photoelectric Effect180

6.3 BOHR’S MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM181

Line Spectra181

Bohr’s Model184

6.4 THE DUAL NATURE OF THE ELECTRON186

The Uncertainty Principle187

6.5 QUANTUM MECHANICS AND ATOMIC ORBITALS189

Orbitals and Quantum Numbers190

6.6 REPRESENTATIONS OF ORBITALS192

The s Orbitals192

The p Orbitals193

The d and f Orbitals194

6.7 ORBITALS IN MANY-ELECTRON ATOMS195

Effective Nuclear Charge196

Energies of Orbitals196

Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle197

6.8 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS199

Writing Electron Configurations199

6.9 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE204

Summary208

Key Terms209

Exercises210

7Periodic Properties of the Elements215

7.1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE216

7.2 ELECTRON SHELLS IN ATOMS218

7.3 SIZES OF ATOMS220

7.4 IONIZATION ENERGY221

Periodic Trends in Ionization Energies223

7.5 ELECTRON AFFINITIES224

7.6 METALS, NONMETALS, AND METALLOIDS226

Metals227

Nonmetals229

Metalloids231

Trends in Metallic and Nonmetallic Character231

7.7 GROUP TRENDS: THE ACTIVE METALS232

Group 1A: The Alkali Metals233

Group 2A: The AlkalineEarth Metals236

7.8 GROUP TRENDS: SELECTED NONMETALS238

Hydrogen238

Group 6A: The Oxygen Family238

Group 7A: The Halogens240

Group 8A: The Noble Gases243

Summary244

Key Terms244

Exercises245

8Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding249

8.1 LEWIS SYMBOLS AND THE OCTET RULE251

8.2 IONIC BONDING252

Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation253

Electron Configurations of Ions254

Polyatomic Ions256

8.3 SIZES OF IONS257

8.4 COVALENT BONDING259

Multiple Bonds260

8.5 BOND POLARITY AND ELECTRONEGATIVITY261

Electronegativity 261 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity262

8.6 DRAWING LEWIS STRUCTURES263

8.7 RESONANCE STRUCTURES265

8.8 EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE268

Odd Number of Electrons 268 Less Than an Octet268

More Than an Octet269

8.9 STRENGTHS OF COVALENT BONDS270

Bond Energies and the Enthalpy of Reactions272

Bond Strength and Bond Length273

8.10 OXIDATION NUMBERS275

Oxidation Numbers and Nomenclature277

Summary279

Key Terms280

Exercises280

9Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories285

9.1 MOLECULAR GEOMETRIES286

The Valence-Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Model287

Predicting Molecular Geometries288

Four or Fewer Valence-Shell Electron Pairs290

The Effect of Nonbonding Electrons andMultiple Bonds on Bond Angles292

Geometries of Moleculeswith Expanded Valence Shells293

Molecules with No Single Central Atom296

9.2 POLARITY OF MOLECULES297

The Polarity of Polyatomic Molecules298

9.3 COVALENT BONDING AND ORBITAL OVERLAP301

9.4 HYBRID ORBITALS302

sp Hybrid Orbitals302

sp2 and sp3 Hybrid Orbitals304

Hybridization Involving d Orbitals306

Summary306

9.5 MULTIPLE BONDS309

Delocalized Bonding313

General Conclusions314

9.6 MOLECULAR ORBITALS315

The Hydrogen Molecule315

Bond Order317

9.7 SECOND-PERIOD DIATOMIC MOLECULES318

Molecular Orbitals for Li2 and Be2318

Molecular Orbitals from 2p Atomic Orbitals319

Electron Configurations for B2

Through F2320

Electron Configurations and Molecular Properties321

Summary325

Key Terms326

Exercises327

10 Gases331

10.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES332

10.2 PRESSURE333

Atmospheric Pressure and the Barometer333

Pressures of Enclosed Gases and Manometers335

10.3 THE GAS LAWS337

The Pressure-Volume Relationship: Boyle’s Law337

The Temperature-Volume Relationship: Charles’s Law339

The Quantity-Volume Relationship: Avogadro’s Law340

10.4 THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION341

Relationship Between the Ideal-Gas Equation and the Gas Laws344

10.5 MOLAR MASS AND GAS DENSITIES347

10.6 GAS MIXTURES AND PARTIAL PRESSURES348

Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions349

10.7 VOLUMES OF GASES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS350

Collecting Gases Over Water351

10.8 KINETIC-MOLECULAR THEORY353

Application to the Gas Laws354

10.9 MOLECULAR EFFUSION AND DIFFUSION356

Graham’s Law of Effusion357

Diffusion and Mean Free Path358

10.10 DEVIATIONS FROM IDEAL BEHAVIOR360

The van der Waals Equation361

Summary363

Key Terms364

Exercises364

11 Intermolecular Forces, Liquids, and Solids371

11.1 THE KINETIC-MOLECULAR DESCRIPTION OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS372

11.2 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES373

Ion-Dipole Forces 374 Dipole-Dipole Forces374

London Dispersion Forces 375 Hydrogen Bonding377

11.3 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS: VISCOSITY AND SURFACE TENSION382

Viscosity 382 Surface Tension382

11.4 CHANGES OF STATE383

Energy Changes Accompanying Changes of State384

Heating Curves384

Critical Temperature and Pressure386

11.5 VAPOR PRESSURE387

Explaining Vapor Pressure on the Molecular Level388

Volatility, Vapor Pressure, and Temperature389

Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point389

11.6 PHASE DIAGRAMS391

The Phase Diagrams of H2O and CO2392

11.7 STRUCTURES OF SOLIDS394

Unit Cells395

The Crystal Structure of Sodium Chloride396

Close Packing of Spheres398

11.8 BONDING IN SOLIDS400

Molecular Solids400

Covalent-Network Solids402

Ionic Solids404

Metallic Solids405

Summary406

Key Terms407

Exercises408

12 Modern Materials413

12.1 LIQUID CRYSTALS415

Types of Liquid-Crystalline Phases416

12.2 POLYMERS421

Types of Polymers424

Structures and Physical Properties of Polymers425

Crosslinking of Polymers428

12.3 CERAMICS430

Processing of Ceramics432

Ceramic Composites433

Applications of Ceramics434

Superconducting Ceramics434

12.4 THIN FILMS437

Uses of Thin Films438

Formation of Thin Films439

Summary442

Key Terms443

Exercises443

13 Properties of Solutions447

13.1 THE SOLUTION PROCESS448

Energy Changes and Solution Formation449

SolutionFormation, Spontaneity, and Disorder451

Solution Formationand Chemical Reactions453

13.2 WAYS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION453

13.3 SATURATED SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY458

13.4 FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY459

Solute-Solvent Interactions460

Pressure Effects462

Temperature Effects464

13.5 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES465

Lowering the Vapor Pressure466

Raoult’s Law467

Boiling-Point Elevation469

Freezing-Point Depression470

Osmosis472

Determination of Molar Mass475

13.6 COLLOIDS476

Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids477

Removal of Colloidal Particles480

Summary480

Key Terms481

Exercises481

14 Chemical Kinetics487

14.1 REACTION RATES488

Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry491

14.2 THE DEPENDENCE OF RATE ON CONCENTRATION492

Reaction Order494

Units of Rate Constants494

Using Initial Rates to Determine Rate Laws495

14.3 CHANGE OF CONCENTRATION WITH TIME496

First-Order Reactions497

Half-Life499

Second-Order Reactions500

14.4 TEMPERATURE AND RATE501

The Collision Model502

Activation Energy503

The Arrhenius Equation505

14.5 REACTION MECHANISMS509

Elementary Steps509

Rate Laws of Elementary Processes511

Rate Laws of Multistep Mechanisms512

Mechanisms with an Initial Fast Step514

14.6 CATALYSIS517

Homogeneous Catalysis517

Heterogeneous Catalysis518

Enzymes522

Summary524

Key Terms525

Exercises525

15 Chemical Equilibrium533

15.1 THE CONCEPT OF EQUILIBRIUM535

15.2 THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT537

Expressing Equilibrium Constants in Terms of Pressure, Kp540

The Magnitude of Equilibrium Constants541

The Direction of the Chemical Equation and K542

15.3 HETEROGENEOUS EQUILIBRIA543

15.4 CALCULATING EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS545

Relating Kc and Kp547

15.5 APPLICATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS548

Predicting the Direction of Reaction 548 Calculation of Equilibrium Concentrations549

15.6 FACTORS AFFECTING EQUILIBRIUM:LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE552

Change in Reactant or Product Concentrations553

Effects of Volume and Pressure Changes555

Effect of Temperature Changes556

The Effect of Catalysts559

Summary561

Key Terms561

Exercises562

16 Acid-Base Equilibria567

16.1 THE DISSOCIATION OF WATER568

The Proton in Water570

16.2 BR？NSTED-LOWRY ACIDS AND BASES570

Proton-Transfer Reactions571

Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs572

Conjugate Acid-Base Strengths573

16.3 THE pH SCALE575

Measuring pH577

16.4 STRONG ACIDS AND BASES578

Strong Acids578

Strong Bases579

16.5 WEAK ACIDS580

Calculating pH for Solutions of Weak Acids582

Polyprotic Acids587

16.6 WEAK BASES590

Types of Weak Bases592

16.7 RELATION BETWEEN Ka AND Kb594

16.8 ACID-BASE PROPERTIES OF SALT SOLUTIONS596

16.9 ACID-BASE BEHAVIOR AND CHEMICAL STRUCTURE599

Effect of Bond Polarity and Bond Strength599

Oxyacids600

Carboxylic Acids602

16.10 LEWIS ACIDS AND BASES603

Hydrolysis of Metal Ions606

Summary607

Key Terms608

Exercises608

17 Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria614

17.1 THE COMMON-ION EFFECT615

17.2 ACID-BASE TITRATIONS618

Strong Acid-Strong Base Titrations619

The Addition of a Strong Base to a Weak Acid622

Titration Curves for Weak Acids or Weak Bases624

Titrations of Polyprotic Acids626

17.3 BUFFERED SOLUTIONS628

Composition and Action of Buffered Solutions628

Buffer Capacity and pH629

Addition of Strong Acids or Bases toBuffers632

17.4 SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA637

The Solubility-Product Constant, Ksp637

Solubility and Ksp638

The Common-Ion Effect640

17.5 CRITERIA FOR PRECIPITATION OR DISSOLUTION640

Solubility and pH 643 Selective Precipitation of Ions645

Effect of Complex Formation on Solubility647

Amphoterism649

17.6 QUALITATIVE ANALYSES FOR METALLIC ELEMENTS651

Summary654

Key Terms654

Exercises655

18 Chemistry of the Environment661

18.1 EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE662

Composition of the Atmosphere663

18.2 THE OUTER REGIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE664

Photodissociation665

Photoionization666

18.3 OZONE IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE667

Depletion of the Ozone Layer669

18.4 CHEMISTRY OF THE TROPOSPHERE670

Sulfur Compounds and Acid Rain672

Carbon Monoxide675

Nitrogen Oxides and Photochemical Smog676

Water Vapor,Carbon Dioxide, and Climate677

18.5 THE WORLD OCEAN679

Seawater679

Desalination680

Ocean Pollution682

18.6 FRESH WATER682

Dissolved Oxygen and Water Quality683

Treatment of Municipal Water Supplies684

Summary686

Key Terms687

Exercises687

19 Chemical Thermodynamics691

19.1 SPONTANEOUS PROCESSES692

19.2 SPONTANEITY, ENTHALPY, AND ENTROPY694

Spontaneity and Entropy Change694

The Second Law of Thermodynamics697

19.3 A MOLECULAR INTERPRETATION OF ENTROPY699

19.4 CALCULATION OF ENTROPY CHANGES704

19.5 GIBBS FREE ENERGY705

Standard Free-Energy Changes706

19.6 FREE ENERGY AND TEMPERATURE708

19.7 FREE ENERGY AND THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT710

Summary713

Key Terms714

Exercises714

20 Electrochemistry719

20.1 OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS721

20.2 BALANCING OXIDATION-REDUCTION EQUATIONS722

Half-Reactions722

Balancing Equations by the Method of Half-Reactions723

Balancing Equations for Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution726

20.3 VOLTAIC CELLS727

20.4 CELL EMF731

Standard Electrode Potentials732

Oxidizing and Reducing Agents735

20.5 SPONTANEITY OF REDOX REACTIONS736

Emf and Free-Energy Change737

20.6 EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION ON CELL EMF739

The Nernst Equation739

Equilibrium Constants for Redox Equations741

20.7 COMMERCIAL VOLTAIC CELLS743

Lead Storage Battery744

Dry Cell745

Nickel-Cadmium Batteries746

Fuel Cells746

20.8 ELECTROLYSIS747

Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions748

Electrolysis with Active Electrodes750

20.9 QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF ELECTROLYSIS751

Electrical Work753

20.10 CORROSION755

Corrosion of Iron756

Prevention of Corrosion757

Summary759

Key Terms760

Exercises761

21 Nuclear Chemistry768

21.1 RADIOACTIVITY769

Nuclear Equations770

Types of Radioactive Decay771

21.2 PATTERNS OF NUCLEAR STABILITY773

Neutron-to-Proton Ratio 773 Radioactive Series775

Further Observations776

21.3 NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATIONS777

Using Charged Particles778

Using Neutrons779

Transuranium Elements779

21.4 RATES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY780

Dating781

Calculations Based on Half-Life782

21.5 DETECTION OF RADIOACTIVITY784

Radiotracers785

21.6 ENERGY CHANGES IN NUCLEAR REACTIONS786

Nuclear Binding Energies789

21.7 NUCLEAR FISSION790

Nuclear Reactors794

21.8 NUCLEAR FUSION795

21.9 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION797

Radiation Doses798

Radon798

Summary801

Key Terms802

Exercises803

22 Chemistry of Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen,and Carbon807

22.1 PERIODIC TRENDS808

22.2 CHEMICAL REACTIONS810

22.3 HYDROGEN812

Isotopes of Hydrogen812

Properties of Hydrogen813

Preparation of Hydrogen815

Uses of Hydrogen816

Binary Hydrogen Compounds816

22.4 OXYGEN818

Properties of Oxygen819

Preparation of Oxygen820

Uses of Oxygen820

Ozone821

Oxides822

Peroxides and Superoxides823

The Oxygen Cycle824

22.5 NITROGEN824

Properties of Nitrogen825

Preparation and Uses of Nitrogen826

Hydrogen Compounds of Nitrogen826

Oxides and Oxyacids of Nitrogen828

The Nitrogen Cycle in Nature832

22.6 CARBON833

Elemental Forms of Carbon833

Oxides of Carbon835

Carbonic Acid and Carbonates837

Carbides839

Other Inorganic Compounds of Carbon839

Summary840

Key Terms840

Exercises841

23 Chemistry of Other Nonmetallic Elements845

23.1 THE NOBLE-GAS ELEMENTS846

Noble-Gas Compounds846

23.2 THE HALOGENS848

Occurrences of the Halogens848

Properties and Preparation ofthe Halogens849

Uses of the Halogens851

The HydrogenHalides852

Interhalogen Compounds855

Oxyacids and Oxyanions857

23.3 THE GROUP 6A ELEMENTS858

General Characteristics of the Group 6A Elements859

Occurrences and Preparation of Sulfur, Selenium, and Tellurium860

Properties and Uses of Sulfur, Selenium, and Tellurium861

Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Sulfur862

Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Se and Te865

Sulfides, Selenides, and Tellurides865

23.4 THE GROUP 5A ELEMENTS866

General Characteristics of the Group 5A Elements866

Occurrence, Isolation, and Properties of Phosphorus867

Phosphorus Halides867

Oxy Compounds of Phosphorus869

Arsenic, Antimony, and Bismuth871

23.5 THE GROUP 4A ELEMENTS872

General Characteristics of the Group 4A Elements872

Occurrence and Preparation of Silicon873

Silicates874

Aluminosilicates876

Glass877

Silicones878

23.6 BORON879

Summary880

Key Terms880

Exercises881

24 Metals and Metallurgy885

24.1 OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF METALS886

Minerals887

Metallurgy888

24.2 PYROMETALLURGY890

The Pyrometallurgy of Iron891

Formation of Steel893

24.3 HYDROMETALLURGY894

The Hydrometallurgy of Aluminum895

24.4 ELECTROMETALLURGY895

Electrometallurgy of Sodium896

Electrometallurgy of Aluminum896

Electrorefining of Copper897

24.5 METALLIC BONDING899

Physical Properties of Metals900

Electron-Sea Model forMetallic Bonding901

Molecular-Orbital Model for Metals901

24.6 ALLOYS905

Intermetallic Compounds906

24.7 TRANSITION METALS907

Physical Properties907

Electron Configurations and OxidationStates909

Magnetism911

24.8 CHEMISTRY OF SELECTED TRANSITION METALS912

Chromium912

Iron913

Copper914

Summary916

Key Terms917

Exercises917

25 Chemistry of Coordination Compounds921

25.1 STRUCTURE OF COMPLEXES922

Charges, Coordination Numbers, and Geometries923

25.2 CHELATES925

Metals and Chelates in Living Systems928

25.3 NOMENCLATURE932

25.4 ISOMERISM934

Structural Isomerism 935 Stereoisomerism936

25.5 LIGAND-EXCHANGE RATES939

25.6 COLOR AND MAGNETISM940

Color 941 Magnetism942

25.7 CRYSTAL-FIELD THEORY943

Electron Configurations in Octahedral Complexes948

Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes949

Summary951

Key Terms952

Exercises952

26 The Chemistry of Life: Organic and BiologicalChemistry956

26.1 ALKANES958

Structures of Alkanes959

Structural Isomers960

Nomenclature of Alkanes960

Cycloalkanes963

Reactions of Alkanes964

26.2 UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS966

Alkenes966

Alkynes967

Addition Reactions of Alkenes andAlkynes968

Aromatic Hydrocarbons970

26.3 HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVES972

Alcohols973

Ethers975

Aldehydes and Ketones975

Carboxylic Acids976

Esters978

Amines and Amides979

26.4 INTRODUCTION TO BIOCHEMISTRY980

26.5 PROTEINS981

Amino Acids981

Polypeptides and Proteins983

Protein Structure985

26.6 CARBOHYDRATES986

Disaccharides988

Polysaccharides989

26.7 NUCLEIC ACIDS991

Summary994

Key Terms995

Exercises996

A Mathematical Operations1003

B Properties of Water1011

C Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 298.15 K （25℃）1012

D Aqueous-Equilibrium Constants1016

E Standard Electrode Potentials at 25℃1018

Answers to Selected Exercises1020